Babylon’s Soap-Making Legacy: How Ancient Hygiene Shaped Civilization

Soap-making has been a fundamental part of hygiene for thousands of years, with origins tracing back to early civilizations. The first known records of soap-making date to Babylon around 2800 BCE, where ancient peoples developed crude cleansing agents. Early formulas combined oil and wood ash, creating a basic soap-like substance primarily used to clean wool before weaving.

By 1550 BCE, the Egyptians had refined soap-making techniques. The Ebers Papyrus, one of the earliest medical texts, describes how animal fats or vegetable oils are mixed with trona, a natural soda ash, to create a cleansing agent.

Egyptians also used similar substances in textile preparation. Soap-making saw further advancements with ashes, cypress oil, and sesame oil being combined to clean stones used by servants during the reign of King Nabonidus of Babylon (556–539 BCE).

The emergence of ‘True Soap’

Unlike early cleansing agents, true soap—capable of producing foam—became possible with an improved understanding of lye, a strong alkaline solution. While the exact origin of true soap remains uncertain, evidence suggests its emergence between the early proto-soaps and the first century AD.

For centuries, alkali was used to clean wool, but true soap only forms when enough fat is present. Experiments suggest that repeated washing of perfume-making materials might have contributed to soap formation, aligning with Mesopotamian practices.

The Roman historian Pliny the Elder (1st century AD) credited the Gauls with the invention of soap, describing a formula made from tallow and ashes. Germanic tribes used it for medicinal purposes and as a hair dye.

Although the Romans initially avoided harsh soaps, they adopted milder Gaulish varieties by 58 BCE. Their traditional cleaning method involved massaging oil into the skin and scraping it off with a strigil, a metal tool.

By the 2nd century AD, Greek physician Galen promoted soap for personal hygiene. He noted that the best soaps came from the Germanic regions, while Gaul produced high-quality alternatives.

Medieval and Islamic contributions to soap-making

Soap production expanded during the Islamic Golden Age (8th–13th century AD), when hard toilet soap with pleasant scents became common. Muslim chemists documented recipes, refining the process by mixing fatty oils with alkali.

In Syria, olive oil played a significant role in soap production, with cities such as Aleppo, Nablus, and Damascus emerging as leading exporters to Europe. The Arabic word “al-qaly,” meaning ashes, later contributed to the modern term “alkali.”

By the 6th century AD, soap-making had reached Naples, and by the 8th century, it was widely known in Italy and Spain. The Carolingian decree “De Villis” (c. 800) referenced soap as an essential estate product.

Early European soaps, made from animal fats, had a strong odor. This changed when olive oil was introduced, shifting production to Mediterranean regions. The Arabs introduced hard toilet soap, which became a luxury item in Europe, often scented and perfumed.

Industrial expansion in Europe

By the 15th century, large-scale soap production took root in cities like Antwerp, Castile, Marseille, Naples, and Venice. What was once a basic cleansing agent had evolved into a major cottage industry, shaping the foundation for the modern soap industry.

From its crude origins in ancient Babylon to its refined production in the Islamic and medieval worlds, soap has remained an indispensable part of human hygiene, constantly evolving with scientific advancements and cultural influences.