New Study Reveals Which Ancient Empire Had the Greatest Inequality

For a long time, the ancient empires of Rome and China’s Han dynasty have fascinated historians and archaeologists. These two powerful civilizations shaped much of the world’s early history. But which one of these ancient empires had the greatest inequality?

A recent study published in Nature Communications has taken a closer look at how wealth was shared in each empire. The study was led by researchers Guido Alfani of Università Bocconi, Michele Bolla, and Walter Scheidel of Stanford University.

Their analysis focused on income distribution in the Roman Empire around 165 CE and the Han Empire around 2 CE, offering new insight into how these ancient powers structured their economies.

Though located on opposite ends of the world, both empires shared a defining trait: highly organized governments capable of collecting resources across large regions. This central control allowed them to redistribute wealth selectively, often increasing inequality within their societies.

New method reveals Han China had more inequality

Researchers developed a new method to measure inequality—not only by comparing income gaps within regions but also by examining differences between them. This broader approach revealed that inequality in ancient China may have reached levels previously unrecognized by historians.

Contrary to expectations, the Han Empire emerged as the more unequal of the two. Based on the study, the Han government extracted significantly more wealth from its population than Rome did.

While the Roman economy was dominated by landowners, it also had thriving trade routes and urban centers that supported middle-class populations. In contrast, Han China’s economic control was concentrated in the hands of the emperor and his officials, leading to more aggressive collection of taxes and resources.

This finding challenges the common view that Confucian ideals, which emphasized social harmony, translated into a fairer society. Instead, the study shows that centralized imperial rule often prioritized state control over economic balance.

Inequality and the fall of dynasties

One of the study’s most striking conclusions connects rising inequality to political collapse. Researchers argue that the high levels of economic concentration in the Han dynasty may have contributed to its eventual downfall. As inequality deepened, it likely fueled unrest, internal conflict, and rebellion—factors that weakened the state and paved the way for its end.

Rome, by comparison, also experienced social tension. However, its political structure was more adaptable and survived longer. The empire managed to endure several internal crises without immediate collapse. The researchers suggest that this difference may be partly due to how wealth was organized and redistributed within each system.

The study also expanded its analysis beyond Rome and China. It included comparisons with the Aztec Empire in 1492, which, according to the data, exhibited even higher levels of resource extraction.